Arak Journal

Local TV News

By Joshua Ciliberti

Abstract

Through an overview of the local television news industry and its consequential role in maintaining a society free from misinformation, this paper associates philosopher J?rgen Habermas’ idea of the public sphere with the modern local news media landscape of the United States. Ultimately, despite an increase in the number of Americans getting their news from digital sources, this paper argues that local television news organizations are crucial to a strong public sphere of dialogue and progressivism. This is the case due to local television news’ trusted reputation in the community, assurance that objective, accurate information reaches the public, its ability to hold political leaders accountable to the truth, and the medium’s evolution with the technologies and dynamics of modern society. This paper also acknowledges the fact that local television news is fragile, with media conglomerates including the Sinclair Broadcast Group working to diminish both the public’s contributions to the agenda of local stations and the responsibility of news organizations to serve as an institution of the public itself” (Habermas 53). This paper declares that this challenge should be met with interactivity.” Citizens must actively collaborate with one another and with journalists from local television news sources to ensure that the public sphere remains a social space” that works toward making the nation a better place for all.

Introduction

By the middle of the 20th century, the television set became the heart of the American household, where viewers would gather as a family for their favorite shows at a scheduled time each and every day. Although popular entertainment programming including I Love Lucy (1951-57), The Goldbergs (1949-56), and The Texaco Star Theatre (1948-53) dominated the airwaves, the rise of local news transformed television from solely serving as an escape from reality to one where the public could quickly and accurately be informed about the world around them (Thompson and Allen). With the advancement of new technologies such as electronic news gathering and professional-grade camcorders, local television news accounts for approximately 45 percent of station revenue” despite the fact that it only offers limited broadcasts during the early morning, lunchtime, mid-evening and late-night time frames (Mittell 147-148). 

In order to best provide the public with the critical information needed for informed decision-making, local television news organizations follow the if it bleeds, it leads” approach, highlighting stories of public safety, violent crimes, vehicle accidents, and potential local threats (Mittell 148). This desire to stay informed about community affairs propelled local television news broadcasts to viewership levels exceeding 9,800,000 households tuning in to a local affiliate of ABC, NBC, CBS, or FOX every day as of 2020 (?Trends and Facts”). Despite these extraordinary numbers, they actually represent much smaller audience sizes than in past decades, with easily accessible digital news media beginning to take the lead in today’s increasingly interconnected society. 

The Pew Research Center highlights this narrowing divide by acknowledging that 41% of Americans get their local news via television while 37% prefer it from online sources (?For Local News”). Despite the dominance of the smartphone and its ability to update users on breaking news stories at their fingertips, this paper argues that local television news sources are the mainstay of a strong public sphere of dialogue and progressivism in modern American society. Accentuated by J?rgen Habermas, the public sphere is an arena devoted to open, constructive debate among ordinary citizens about the opinions and concerns most imperative to the prosperity and success of all (Goode 107). Assisted by the objectivity and neutrality of local television news, the public sphere has the ability to connect the resources of elected political leaders to the ideas of the people, ensuring problems are solved in a way that best meets the needs of everyone impacted. With 90 percent more local news being broadcast today than 20 years ago” and the fact that it can be found on 39 percent more stations,” it is a fundamental centerpiece of our democracy, an anchor in a society of heightened animus and increasing political polarization (?Local TV News”). This is as a result of local television news stations having long-standing trust within a community, competition serving as a check” for accurate reporting along with permitting scrutiny toward elected officials, and the medium’s ability to evolve with the digital ecosystem of the 21st century. 

The Public Sphere

Introduced by German philosopher J?rgen Habermas in 1964, the public sphere is a social space” where all citizens have free, equal access to information impacting society as a whole. Here, citizens are encouraged to debate in an unrestricted manner, having the freedom to express and publish their opinions on matters that have the general interest of the community in mind (Habermas 49). Within American society, there is often a missing link between citizens and elected officials who have the legal and moral responsibility of working to meet the demands of ever-changing public opinion. Local television news organizations bridge this gap by mediating between the citizenry and the various loci of decision-making power,” where all members of a community are able to be accurately informed through topic-centric reporting about a controversial issue at hand (Goode 95). 

In maintaining an active public sphere, the media serves as an institution of the public itself,” where a variety of competing local television news channels are able to intensify public discussions by repeatedly covering critical stories during their scheduled broadcast times (Habermas 53). Every local news channel is responsible for sending out reporters who act as unbiased representatives of the people, working to produce, gather, process, and distribute information and discourse” through a comprehensive overview of an entire situation as opposed to simply revealing relevant actors and social processes as they arise. In essence, through on-location, live televised reporting from crime scenes, press conferences, or community gatherings, it is clear that local news stations serve as the gatekeepers and agenda setters” of the oftentimes complex relationship between citizens and elected government officials, ensuring that the public will is always brought to the forefront of all political action in a community (Goode 94). 

A Reputation of Trust in the Community

Since the 1980s, familiarity has been a major driving force behind the popularity of local television news, where viewers tune in expecting to see the same, established staff of journalists covering the most pressing issues in the community. For this reason, it is no wonder why two thirds of Americans cite their local news as their major source of news, and viewers typically find local news more credible than network options” (Mittell 148). As a result of viewers experiencing a local television news program with the same familiar faces along with a well-defined format of weather, sports, crime, politics, and the arts, clearly a station can develop a reputation of trust across generations. Speaking to this, the 2018 Poynter Media Trust Survey indicates that approximately 75% of news-watching Americans have a great deal” or fair amount” of trust in local news sources ? a statistic that is vital to the maintenance of the public sphere (Cantwell). According to the Knight Foundation, without reliable, straightforward local television news coverage, fewer people strive for elected positions and overall voter participation decreases across the nation (Sands). With a downward trend in both of these areas, the ideas and concerns of the general public are likely to be unaccounted for in political decision-making, leaving the community without a vehicle that allows their voices to be heard.

Compared to other media, such as national or cable news programs, local television news significantly contributes to a robust public sphere due to the confidence its viewers have in its ability to provide fact-checked, accurate reporting. Based on Knight-Gallup survey data provided by the U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, two-thirds of participants trusted local news to ‘report the news without bias’” and 59% trusted local news to ‘get the facts right,’” with much lower values given to their national and cable news counterparts (Cantwell). This stems from the fact that one of the key missions of local television news stations is to limit false and incomplete information from spreading at the community level. The presence of misinformation would likely foster a divide in the population, where it would be impossible for the community to unite on common issues that serve the best interests of all citizens, limiting the vitality of the public sphere. 

Furthermore, it is seen that a community’s trust in their local television news station is highly dependent on its ability to be a mainstay of the community. As reported by the Pew Research Center, 85% of adults believe it is at least somewhat important for journalists to understand their community’s history” and 81% want them to be personally engaged with their local area” (?For Local News”). These desires illustrate that Americans rely on local television news for information that is crucial to their well-being and that allows them to navigate their daily routine successfully. With local news reporters not just acting as unbiased representatives of the public will, but also as dedicated community members, viewers are inclined to give their local stations high approval ratings, enhanced by the fact that they strike an appropriate balance between political topics and general affairs such as weather, traffic, sports, and events (Sands). Because local television news gives its viewers a hyper-local perspective, individuals are able to make educated decisions for themselves and their families based on facts about the realm they interact with on a daily basis ? not from stories taking place far from their reality. Although the public sphere involves a world encompassing more than just the neighborhood, local television news zooms in on specific issues facing a community and makes those topics directly accessible to the individual (Goode 93). When millions of individuals can contribute their opinions to society based on trusted, accurate information, change is can taking place on a large scale.

Competition Leads to Accurate Reporting and Scrutiny Toward Elected Officials

In today’s society, the reach of local television news is widespread, with almost every community, no matter rural or urban, covered by at least one of the 839 news-producing” stations dotted across the United States (?Trends and Facts”). As a result of this expansive availability, local television news stations compete with one another for viewership, attracting a loyal audience through a commitment to providing the most accurate, fact-checked information possible. In an environment where misinformation can easily penetrate into public opinion due to its prevalence on social media sources, competition among local television news outlets incentivizes greater disclosure of information and fosters greater pressure to get the story right” (Cantwell). Depending on the demographic and locality it serves, each local television news station will have a unique perspective on a prominent issue. For instance, at the onset of the coronavirus pandemic, many local television news stations centered their coverage on different aspects of the health emergency. Some focused heavily on press conferences, health briefings, and social media posts from both national and local political leaders. However, many others more closely followed data pouring in at the community level, such as case numbers, hospitalizations, and emerging hotspots,” in addition to suggesting methods to stay safe and healthy. Although these differences can be partially blamed on the rapidly developing information available at the time, it is clear that it was also motivated by a desire to attract varying audiences, aligning coverage in a way that would ensure loyalty to a station for the long run. By having a large number of competitors, the public will be able to compare reporting from the differing sources and determine the truth by accepting clear, verifiable evidence that is consistent across the board (Gentzkow and Shapiro 135). In the public sphere, it is imperative that individuals base their discourse on peer-reviewed information in order to advance the public’s agenda. Competition permits this as each station serves as a check” on the others, where overlapping claims indicate the truth. Without the large presence of local television news across the country and the safety that comes with competition, important decisions have the potential to be based on biased, false, or skewed information ? all preventing the nation from becoming a more perfect union.” 

In addition to competition among local television news organizations serving as a check” on accurate reporting, the vast number of stations across the nation ensures political leaders are being held accountable in their duty of promoting the truth. According to the American Press Institute, a new approach toward accountability journalism” is being used to watch over the actions of America’s most powerful leaders that includes fact-checking, explanatory and investigative reporting.” With increased scrutiny toward the government across the media industry, it only requires one local station to uncover a story that exposes political conduct that goes against the best interests of the American people. Ultimately, the health of the public sphere is centered on the behavior of the political leaders at the top. No matter how hard the general public works to educate themselves with accurate, fact-checked information, all it takes is for one disconnected, self-motivated elected official to put their own motives and beliefs over those of the public in order to throw the system into chaos. For this reason, demanding the truth from politicians has become a priority in today’s media landscape, emphasized by the fact that the number of news organizations doing fact-checking journalism has nearly tripled since 2014″ (Elizabeth et al.). Combined with investigative reporting from nonprofit organizations, the diverse perspectives of local news organizations across the United States ensure errors are not made in reporting on emerging political policies and decisions, where the magnitude of their impact on the public sphere may be overlooked (Gentzkow and Shapiro 135). 

Local Television News Evolves with American Society’s Changing Preferences

As referenced in the introduction of this paper, the widespread availability of smartphones and access to high-speed internet in almost every corner of the nation means Americans are increasingly getting their local news via digital sources. In a recent study conducted by the Pew Research Center, approximately 48% of adults get news from social media ‘often’ or ‘sometimes,’” a statistic that continues to rise with each passing year (Walker et al.). Local television news organizations have taken advantage of this evolving media ecosystem to not only reach new audiences but also to promote a greater degree of interconnectedness between viewers and reporters. Local stations have worked toward this goal by utilizing social tools such as Facebook Live and Twitter’s Periscope to bring viewers closer to the action (?Local TV News”). No matter if it is featuring a meteorologist’s analysis of an impending winter storm or a health reporter giving an update on COVID-19 from their home office, livestream comment sections allow viewers to interact with their neighbors along with journalists who are experts in their fields. Relating to the public sphere, these livestream comments along with polls and surveys posted across a multitude of social media platforms create an electronic coffee house,” an online arena where citizens can openly share and debate their diverse ideas (Goode 107). With individuals of so many different backgrounds coming together in one social space,” it is clear that citizens will be able to help one another in solving the problems they face on a daily basis. However, they will not be alone in this task, as the local television news reporter will be actively responding to questions, refuting misinformation as it arises, and can report the thoughts of the public on primetime broadcasts to further advance the perpetual search for the truth. 

This idea of interactivity” allows social media to be such a valuable tool for local television news organizations. Continuously exchanging personal opinions with immediate feedback makes two-way interaction the biggest asset in promoting a healthy public sphere of discourse and progressivism in the United States. Allowing participation in open morning or afternoon news meetings” and having audience call-in or text-in sessions with news managers” gives the public a major say in what is broadcasted every day, with information of the utmost importance to the people capable of spreading to the nation’s highest political offices (?Local TV News”). According to the Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, contributing emotional reactions, interacting with website links, sharing livestream videos, and engaging with the comments allows individuals to talk back” to local television news stations, ensuring it is not a one-way street” (Guo and Sun). By doing this, the public can prove that the local media is not solely a place where only the elite can influence modern society. From rural farmers to urban blue-collar workers, local television news serves everyone ? the backbone of American democracy for generations to come. 

The Challenge of Maintaining the Integrity of Local Television News

Despite the dedication of local television news organizations in fostering an unyielding, honest media landscape in the United States, it is unreasonable to think that this effort did not come without any resistance. Sinclair Broadcast Group has emerged as the largest threat to local television news’ reputation for being an accountable source of crucial information. With the goal of curtailing local control over the news” and pushing conservative political news to local news audiences,” Sinclair is trying to alter a medium known for its commitment to neutrality and objectivity into one where there is a clear bias (Tryon 1378). On each of Sinclair’s 294 television stations, anchors are required to read scripted propaganda texts” along with airing a variety of must-run” segments, all while limiting the production of the original programming that makes local television news unique (Tryon 1382). Since this content comes from a syndicated, national source, it clearly has the intention of taking the local out of local television news, where the ideas and concerns of community members have no way of getting appropriate airtime. This issue is compounded by Sinclair Broadcast Group’s continuous efforts to expand into a monopoly, hoping to dominate local television news stations in every media market across the nation. 

With millions of people watching local television news broadcasts as part of their daily routines, Sinclair Broadcast Group, along with other media conglomerates, are increasingly dangerous to a strong public sphere of dialogue and progressivism in the United States. In order to maintain the integrity of the local television news medium, along with the public sphere as a whole, it takes the devotion of two key actors: the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and the American people. Specifically, in 2018, the FCC shut down a proposed merger between Sinclair Broadcast Group and Tribune Media, which would have given Sinclair reach over 70% of U.S. households.” Under an extreme amount of pressure from consumer protection groups and media activists, the government-controlled FCC acted on the behalf of citizens, believing a merger of this magnitude would be of great concern to the public interest (Tryon 1379). Although the Federal Communications Commission serves as a helpful partner in this fight for an unbiased local television news landscape, it is truly up to each and every American to protect this fragile medium. 

Ensuring local television news stays an institution of the public itself” requires citizens to keep a close eye on the processes of their local stations, just as they expect the media to do with political leaders. Perpetually calling out questionable actions, challenging controversial statements, and demanding the full, unrestricted truth in every story are all ways to maintain local television news’ paramount contribution to the robust American public sphere, a social space” that has the potential to rival even the highest expectations set out for it by J?rgen Habermas. Despite the negative influence of media conglomerates and the increasing popularity of online news sources, combining an established trust within the community, the strive for accuracy and accountability through competition, and a large presence on social media ensures that nothing rivals local television news in its pursuit of being the mainstay of the public sphere, both now and for generations to come. Ultimately, American society is a huge, dynamic place where millions of actors are working together toward one common goal ? the pursuit of happiness.” As Philadelphia’s 6ABC Action News emphasizes in its theme song, if every citizen can take a little bit of time,” they will be able to move closer to their world” ? ensuring every decision they make, no matter big or small, is one that allows society to become a better place for all (?Action News Theme Song”). 

Works Cited

Works Cited

Action News Theme Song – Move Closer to Your World (with lyrics).” YouTube, uploaded by 6abc Philadelphia, 3 January 2019, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BFJ2yoTsBds

Cantwell, Maria. Local Journalism: America’s Most Trusted News Sources Threatened.” Maria Cantwell – United States Senator for Washington, U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, 

Science, and Transportation, 26 Oct. 2020, https://www.cantwell.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/Local%20Journalism%20Report%2010.26.20_430pm.pdf. 

Elizabeth, Jane, et al. Improving Accountability Reporting: How to Make the Best of Journalism Better for Audiences.” American Press Institute, 8 

Aug. 2017, https://www.americanpressinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/final-improving-accountability-reporting-how-to-make-the-best-of-journalism-better-for-audiences.pdf. 

For Local News, Americans Embrace Digital but Still Want Strong Community Connection.” Pew Research Center’s Journalism Project, Pew Research Center, 30 May 2020, 

https://www.pewresearch.org/journalism/2019/03/26/for-local-news-americans-embrace-digital-but-still-want-strong-community-connection/. 

Gentzkow, Matthew, and Jesse M. Shapiro. 2008. “Competition and Truth in the Market for News.” Journal of Economic Perspectives, vol. 22, no. 2, 2008, pp. 133-154.

Goode, Luke. Mediations: From the Coffee House to the Internet Caf?.” Jurgen Habermas: 

Democracy and the Public Sphere, Pluto Press, 2005, pp. 89?119, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt18fs4vv.8.

Guo, Miao, and Fu-Shing Sun. Like, Comment, or Share? Exploring the Effects of Local Television News Facebook Posts on News Engagement.” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, vol. 64, no. 5, 2020, pp. 736?755, https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2020.1851125. 

Habermas, J?rgen, et al. The Public Sphere: An Encyclopedia Article (1964).” New German    Critique, no. 3, 1974, pp. 49?55. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/487737. 

Local TV News and the New Media Landscape.” Knight Foundation, 5 Apr. 2018, https://knightfoundation.org/reports/local-tv-news-and-the-new-media-landscape/. 

Mittell, Jason. Televised Citizenship.” Television and American Culture. Oxford UP, 2010, pp. 125-158.

Sands, John. Local News Is More Trusted than National News – But That Could Change.” Knight Foundation, Knight Foundation, 29 Oct. 2019, https://knightfoundation.org/articles/local-news-is-more-trusted-than-national-news-but-that-could-change/. 

Thompson, Robert J. and Allen, Steve. “Television in the United States.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 1 Jul. 2019, https://www.britannica.com/art/television-in-the-United-States. Accessed 26 November 2021.

Trends and Facts on Local News: State of the News Media.” Pew Research Center’s Journalism Project, Pew Research Center, 13 July 2021, https://www.pewresearch.org/journalism/fact-sheet/local-tv-news/. 

Tryon, Chuck. Sinclair Broadcasting as Mini-Media Empire: Media Regulation, Disinformercials, and the Rise of Trumpism.” SAGE Journals, Fayetteville State University, 4 Aug. 2020, https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0163443720939425. 

Walker, Mason, and Katerina Matsa. News Consumption Across Social Media in 2021.” Pew Research Center’s Journalism Project, Pew Research Center, 20 Sept. 2021, https://www.pewresearch.org/journalism/2021/09/20/news-consumption-across-social-media-in-2021/. 

Paper Prompt

Due Dates:

Rough Proposal: R 10/28 Conferences: T 11/9 ? F 11/12 Revised Proposal: T 11/9 Annotated Bibliography: T 11/9

Rough Draft & Peer Review (in-class): R 11/18 Presentations: R 12/2, T 12/7, and R 12/9 Final Draft with abstract: R 12/16

 

Format/Grading

Your essay should fall between 1800 and 2700 words, double-spaced with standard 12-point font and 1-inch margins. You will need to write a separate 50 to 100-word abstract for your essay. Students will also produce a 4 to 8-minute in-class presentation on their paper for their peers. The completion of the rough draft is required in order to receive a grade on the final draft. You must use MLA-style for your citations in-text and within a works-cited. You need to use a minimum of 6 sourcesat least 1 must be in-class text and at least 3 must be outside academic” texts.

Description and Directions

Over the course of this class, we have explored the question of why we watch, use, or play moving images through a narration of our own experience, a creative and meta-analytical project, and a survey of several readings and visual texts covering a variety of issues. You now are relative expert in the discourse surrounding screen cultures, putting you in a position to engage the complex network of ideas in order to contribute” new knowledge to this ongoing conversation. Through your own work and research, you must argue for your own position that responds to a question/frame you have constructed. Your contribution will not stand alone. Imagine every author we have read so far?and authors among those your find on your own? standing in judgment of your position. You want to respond to different ideas within the conversation” in a multitude of ways to formulate a focused, debatable thesis that moves forward our understanding of your given topic and the field at large.

Key Considerations and Other Requirements

The Role of the Thesis: The heart of your paper is the thesis, as this provides a clear and concise articulation of how you are reinterpreting, challenging, or contributing to the domain of ideas within the field. Within your essay, do not be coy with your thesis?you want the reader to know what you are arguing. Show your cards to the reader up front, allowing your thesis to serve as the function through which your paper operates. As we discussed earlier, put your thesis to the test of why and how.

Method and Framework: In constructing an argument that works dialogically within the wider academic” conversation, you may employ several approaches in building your thesis. A complex, generative argument?, however, does not typically work within the binary of a yes/no, good/bad framework. Rather, your thesis can aim to resituate or redefine a longstanding theoretical claim (e.g., how may we reconceptualize the male gaze” within contemporary dynamics of gender and sexuality?); it could expose a gap or an under-studied element in the wider terrain of scholarship (e.g., how may we differentiate the experience of video games within online spaces relative to shared, in-person spaces?); or it can leverage a case study towards novel insights (e.g., what may Interstellar tell us about the relationship between moving images and scientific discovery? Or, what is the nature of the relationship between the horror genre and its sociopolitical context?).

Usage/Engagement of Sources: Though your paper may require some sources to help you contextualize your topic, your research should seek to represent and be accountable to a part of the conversation” you aim to address. In other words, find credible, peer-reviewed sources that also employ debatable” stances. Then, position your own claim relative to this network of ideas. Again, go beyond an exclusively agree/disagree approach with these. Perhaps you can challenge the premises underlying a given text? Or you could illustrate an idea’s strength and then resituate it within a new context salient to your thesis (e.g., maybe Ellison’s idea of the shadow and the act” could speak to representations of nationality within television shows).

Note: You will have to go beyond a Google search, as this will produce a superficial, vague, and/or uncredible snapshot of your topic. We will discuss methods and complete assignments to learn this approach (e.g., the Annotated Bibliography) and explore how to utilize the library’s wonderful and extensive resources.

Structuring for clarity: the abstract and subheadings. Your job as a writer is to make your ideas clear to your reader. To do this, prepare a capsule” of it in the form of an abstract at the beginning of your essay, before your introduction. The abstract gives readers a big picture” view of the text to help direct the reading process. Further, help your reader navigate your text by chunking” your essay into meaningful sections that are separated and defined by subheadings. For this essay, your subheadings will be most effective when they forecast the main claim of the section.

Presentations: During the three classes between December 2nd and December 9th, you will all give a 4 to 8-minute presentation on your paper to your peers, producing a simple visual aid to supplement your presentation (more details will come as we near the presentation dates). Though it is worth 10 points on your final Project 3 grade, I promise, these will be low-stakes. The goal with the presentation is three- fold: 1) Presenting a snapshot of your topic can be an effective means by which to consolidate, focus, and revise your paper before your final draft; 2) This will offer a low-key scenario for us to practice oral communication and elocution, which you will encounter in other classes later in your college (and professional) career; and 3) sharing these presentations with one another allows us to celebrate together the breadth of your skills and the diversity of your interests within the context of our shared course.

Other Resources and Heuristics

I will provide you with a few sample Contribution” essays as models, though your rhetorical approach should certainly adapt to the needs of your specific thesis. Within the Annotated Bibliography assignment, we will also learn how to map out the conversation surrounding your particular topic and synthesize” the relevant texts as to help you determine how to use and respond to them within your own essay. We will also do a Research Scavenger Hunt” in class to help you become familiar with the network of UD Library resources.

English 110 – Contribution Essay Rubric and Comments

Student Name:

Rubric Item			Grade Range
The writer clearly articulated and wrote through a precise but debatable argumentative thesis: addressing a gap, giving attention to something new, or reconsidering an element(s) important/relevant to the academic conversation; explaining the reason/exigency to considering the issue; highlighting the stakes of the claim; and ultimately ‘contributing’ an idea or approach that moves the body of knowledge forward.
The writer worked closely and productively with the relevant texts: mapping out, negotiating, and entering the academic conversation; granting attention to a variety of perspectives to build the claim; and providing sufficient evidence from the (minimum of 6) texts themselves.
The paper is written through a coherent argumentative structure: providing a succinct yet informative abstract; adhering to and functioning through the preview provided in the introduction/thesis; utilizing topic sentences and signaling language to provide a road map for the reader; allowing the salience of ideas relative to the thesis and conversation dictate the organization; and keeping the central argument present for the reader throughout the whole of the paper.
The writer worked through several steps of the drafting process: engaging in the necessary amount of revision, responding to instructor comments and peer reviews in a productive manner, and reaching the minimum word count.

 

 

Instructor Comments:

 

Presentation: x/10 Paper: x/90

Total Grade: x/100 (letter grade)